Tools of the Trade

The Fire Service has evolved significantly since the days of bucket brigades, as our job no longer involves simply putting the wet stuff on the red stuff. Today's modern firefighter must be knowledgeable and proficient at handling a wide-spectrum of emergency situations and the challenges they present. To help us complete these difficult tasks, many different types of tools and equipment are utilized, some of which have been developed specifically for use in the fire service.


	Typical personal protective equipment consisting of turnout gear, helmet, hood, gloves, boots and SCBA.

Without a doubt, no equipment is more important than the gear which is used to protect firefighters from the many hazards they confront. Dependant upon the nature of the emergency incident, firefighters always utilize some level of Personal Protective Equipment to help shield themselves from injury. Personal Protective Equipment refers to any clothing, helmets and equipment, such as self-contained breathing apparatus, which is worn to protect firefighters from injury.

The coat and pants used for structural firefighting are commonly referred to as Bunker Gear or Turnout Gear, and are designed to protect the wearer from the hazards of fighting fires and other dangers that may be encountered. National Fire Protection Association standards require all turnout coats and pants to incorporate three protective components: an outer shell, a moisture barrier and a thermal barrier.


The outer shell and inner liner of a turnout coat.

Dependant upon the properties of the material it is constructed from, the outer shell can offer many protections. Its first and foremost job is to protect the firefighter from injury due to direct contact with flames and heat. The fabric of the outer shell also helps to protect against cuts and abrasions and may provide a limited amount of water repellency.


	Reflective trim is designed to be highly visible even in poor lighting conditions.

The moisture barrier and thermal barrier are usually incorporated into a common liner which fastens to the inside of the outer shell. The moisture barrier serves to keep water, steam, blood and vapors from entering and making contact with the firefighter while still allowing heat and perspiration to be released. The thermal component of the liner must also allow moisture to be expelled, but its primary job is to protect the wearer from high levels of heat.

A fourth component that is required for all turnout gear is reflective trim which helps to provide visibility and identification under many conditions. Turnout trim usually incorporates a fluorescent component for daytime visibility and a reflective component to catch light during nighttime and low visibility conditions such as a smoke-filled room. Different color trim is usually utilized to help easily differentiate firefighters from officers.


	Today's modern fire helmets provide protection against many hazards. Flip-down eye shields however, are not considered adequate eye protection.

Like turnout gear, helmets are designed to provide the firefighter with many protections. The primary function of any helmet used in the fire service is to provide impact protection to the head. Helmets designed for structural firefighting also provide protection against heat with their liners and earflaps. The brim of a structural helmet should prevent water and embers from finding their way inside the coat around the neck.


An early era fire helmet with front piece is depicted in this Currier & Ives lithograph from 1858 entitled "The American Fireman - Facing the Conflict."

Many structural helmets have some sort of eye or face protection incorporated into them that can be lowered into position when needed. These devices serve only as secondary protection and do not negate the need for wearing approved, primary eye protection such as goggles or safety glasses when the situation requires them.

While modern fire helmets are generally constructed of composite materials and come in many different models, the classic shape of the fire helmet dates back to 1836 when it was constructed of durable leather. Today, both composite and leather models of the classic shape are available. Regardless of construction, all helmets must be designed to meet the same National Fire Protection Association standard.

The creation of that leather helmet in 1836 is credited to Henry T. Gratacap, who owned a business producing ocean transit luggage from specially treated leather that offered superior durability and withstood wetness without rotting¹. Being a volunteer firefighter in New York City, he was aware of firefighter's need for better head protection, so H. T. Gratacap developed a helmet and named it the "New Yorker."

Shortly thereafter, two brothers named Cairns who operated a Metal Badge, Button, and Insignia business in New York, came up with the idea to mount an identification badge to the front of Gratacap's helmets. Hence the first front piece (or shield) and holder were born. The two companies cooperated until H. T. Gratacap's retirement in the mid 1850's, and the Cairns & Brother legacy of fire helmets began. Although the New Yorker has been re-engineered throughout its lifetime, it is still produced today by CairnsHelmets, a division of Mine Safety Appliance Co. (MSA).

The use of the eagle on the helmet as a holder for the shield has an equally long history. Around 1825, an unknown sculptor did a commemorative figure for the grave of a volunteer fireman in Trinity Churchyard in New York City². It depicted the hero issuing from the flames, his trumpet in one hand, a sleeping babe in the other, and, on his hat, an eagle. No firefighters were wearing eagles at the time as it was a flight of pure fancy on the sculptor's part, but as soon as the firemen saw it they thought it was a splendid idea, and since every fire company in those days designed their own uniforms, it was widely adopted at once.


Illustration depicting a high eagle.

The eagle has remained on fire helmets ever since, in spite of the fact that it has frequently proven to be a dangerous ornament. The older style of the eagle as a shield holder sat much higher than its modern-day counterparts, hence the name "high eagle." Its beak caught on window sashes, wires and everything else. It was always getting dented, bent and knocked off. Every so often some realist would point out how much safer it would be to do away with the eagle, but traditionalists always refused. Today, the eagle, and other styles of shield holders, sit much lower on the helmet, but they still manage to catch on things and get dented just as their predecessors did.

A firefighter's helmet is a very personal item, and as unique as the individual. While most departments issue helmets made from a composite material because of their lower cost and weight, many firefighters choose to purchase their own leather helmet out of love for one of the fire service's oldest traditions.

A casual observation of a helmet may tell you much about the firefighter, and maybe even a little about the person. The color of the helmet usually signifies the rank of the firefighter as Chief's helmets are almost always white. In Simsbury, a red helmet denotes a Junior Firefighter whereas regular firefighters, Lieutenants and Captains wear black. Usually you can find many decorations on a fire helmet, commonly in the form of decals. American flags, shamrocks and memorials to fallen firefighters are all very common. Sometimes you can also learn about some of the firefighter's qualifications such as if they are an engineer for an apparatus, and what level of hazardous materials or medical training they have.

Not surprisingly, many of the firefighters who choose to buy their own helmet also buy a custom shield for it. Shields also can indicate many things including rank, station, service number and organization or municipality. Click on the picture above to see the many different helmets which have been worn by the members of the Simsbury Volunteer Fire Company through the years.

The Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus is another essential component of a firefighter's Personal Protective Equipment as it provides crucial protection to the user's lungs, respiratory tract, eyes and face. Without its protection, a firefighter could be seriously injured and quickly incapacitated from dangerous atmospheric conditions such as oxygen deficiency, elevated air temperatures, smoke and other toxic components. Its use is mandatory anytime a firefighter might encounter a hazardous atmosphere such as while fighting a fire, investigating for carbon monoxide, operating at a hazardous materials incident or performing a below-grade rescue.


SCBA harness with attached air cylinder.

The SCBA provides clean, breathable air to the user from a cylinder of compressed air which is attached to the SCBA harness and worn on the firefighter's back. Contrary to a very popular belief, firefighters do not carry oxygen in their bottles. It is simply the normal everyday air that we all breathe which has been filtered and compressed for SCBA use.

When the firefighter inhales, a negative pressure is created inside their facepiece which the regulator senses thus triggering air flow. The high-pressure air travels from the cylinder to the pressure reducer where it is reduced to a pressure slightly greater than atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi), and is then delivered to the facepiece for inhalation. When the firefighter ceases their inhalation, the regulator detects this and stops the flow of air to the mask.

Even after air flow to the mask stops, the pressure inside the facepiece remains slightly greater than the atmospheric pressure on the outside. Known as positive pressure, this guarantees that should the facepiece develop a leak or become slightly dislodged, air will flow out of the facepiece and prevent any contaminated atmosphere from entering in.


	The Scott Air-Pak Fifty 4.5 Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus with facepiece, carbon fiber cylinder and integrated Pak-Alert SE Personal Alert Safety System.

In 1997, the Simsbury Volunteer Fire Company formed a committee with the mission of exploring replacement of our aging Scott 2A SCBA's. After an intensive investigation including hands-on testing of all major manufacturers' products, a recommendation was made to the Fire District to purchase the Scott Air-Pak Fifty 4.5 Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus. The Scott Fifty's offered many advantages and several add-on safety features were chosen when the air packs were purchased.

Probably the most notable attribute of the Scott Fifty SCBA is its weight, or lack thereof. By using the 4,500 psi carbon fiber cylinder which is rated for 30 minutes of work time, the entire SCBA weighs-in at just over 18 pounds. These lighter-weight packs help to reduce firefighter fatigue and injuries. While the weight-reduction provided by the carbon fiber bottles is a great advantage, extra care must be afforded to them because of their specialized construction.


Cutaway of a Scott carbon fiber cylinder, and a close-up of damage resulting from the dragging of a cylinder across a concrete floor during a training evolution.

These cylinders consist of an aluminum alloy inner shell, with a total over wrap of carbon fiber, fiberglass and epoxy resin. The over wrap is not as durable as metal cylinders and excessive wear of the over wrap can force the cylinder to be taken permanently out-of-service.

Simsbury's SCBA's are equipped with the Emergency Buddy Breathing System. By use of a quick-disconnect in the low pressure line between the pressure reducer and the mask-mounted regulator, a firefighter experiencing either a malfunction or low air condition can connect their regulator to another SCBA. A supplied airline accessory also allows the SCBA to be supplied from a remote low pressure source providing virtually unlimited service time. Tower 12's platform has supplied air connections for this purpose.


	Two firefighters can simultaneously breath from the same air cylinder with the Emergency Buddy Breathing System.

For optimal firefighter safety, Simsbury chose to equip their Scott Fifty's with the Pak-Alert SE integrated Personal Alert Safety System. Firefighters are required to utilize PASS devices anytime their duties require a SCBA. Unlike stand-alone PASS devices which require the firefighter to physically switch them on for use, the Pak-Alert SE turns on when the firefighter opens their SCBA cylinder for use, negating the need to turn the PASS on manually and safeguarding against the danger of forgetting to do so.


Integrated PASS device with air supply gauge.

Through their audible and visual warning signals, PASS devices assist rescuers in locating firefighters in distress. The PASS device functions by sensing motion. Should the firefighter become motionless, after approximately 30 seconds the PASS will begin to emit a loud, shrieking alarm accompanied by a pulsating light. Firefighters who become trapped or disoriented can also activate their device manually.


	SCBA maintenance and repair shop.

Simply put, self-contained breathing apparatus are essential and we couldn't perform our duties without them. Recognizing this, the Fire District stipulated in the purchasing contract that we become a Scott-authorized in-house repair facility, certified to perform all levels of repair up to and including full overhaul. For a volunteer department this is a unique capability and has proven to be a significant cost savings to the Fire District, especially since OSHA has mandated annual flow testing of all SCBA's.


A SCBA being tested on the Biosystems Posi-3 dynamic test stand (L), and the Scott test bench (R).

Located at the Weatogue Station, the SCBA maintenance and repair shop is equipped with a Scott test bench, a Biosystems Posi-3 dynamic test stand, and tools and spare parts. Except for hydrostatic testing of the air cylinders which is completed by a third-party vendor, virtually all SCBA maintenance and testing is performed by three firefighters who have received factory training. This in-house ability provides an additional advantage of significantly decreasing the down-time when a unit must be taken offline for maintenance and repair.


	A "married" set of "Irons."

The flat-head axe and the Halligan Bar are undoubtedly the two most-used hand tools in the fire service as they are utilized in a wide-variety of applications. They can be found on most apparatus and are commonly carried paired-together with the fork-end of the Halligan fitted over the head of the axe, and the two handles secured to each other with some kind of fastener. When carried together in this manner they are commonly referred to as "The Irons" and are said to be "married."

The flat-head axe serves as both a cutting tool and a striking tool, and has many useful purposes. The flat-head axe can be used to cut holes in walls, doors, floors, roofs and even laminated automotive windshields during extrication operations. As a striking tool, it is commonly used drive the Halligan and other prying tools for forcible entry operations.


Useful for a wide-variety of applications, the Halligan Bar is commonly used for forcible entry.

The Halligan Bar or Halligan Tool, is a multipurpose prying tool which was designed in the 1940's by Hugh Halligan, a First Deputy Fire Commissioner in the New York City Fire Department. One end of the bar contains the fork, which is commonly used to force inward swinging doors. The other end of the Halligan consists of the adze and the pick. The adze is useful for forcing outward swinging doors. The pick can be used for punching the locks out of automobile doors and trunks, and it can be inserted into the shackle opening of a padlock, and then struck with an axe or sledge hammer to break the shackle free from the lock.


	The Halligan Bar being used to create anchor points.

The Halligan can also be driven into the ground to created anchor points, such as to keep a master stream device from creeping. In the absence of a bombproof anchor, the Halligan can also be used in conjunction with other pry bars and webbing to create an anchor point for high-angle rescue called a "picket system".

The axe and Halligan are carried together because the are so often used in conjunction with one another. Anytime the Halligan is needed for forcible entry, the flat-head axe is used to drive the Halligan into the opening.


The flat-head axe and Halligan Bar being used to create a "purchase point" in a vehicle door so that the hydraulic spreaders can be inserted to pry the door from the Nader Bolt.

Search and rescue teams often take a set of Irons with them because of their many uses. Search and rescue personnel often have to force a door or window to gain entry, and they may later find locked interior doors which will also have to be opened. During a search, a firefighter can use one of the tools for extended reach to probe for victims in closets and under beds, and to check the floor ahead for dangers such as unseen holes in a smoke-filled room. As teams search a structure, it is common for them to remove the glass from the windows to help ventilate the building. An axe or Halligan is a great tool for this application, among many, many others.

Also known as the thermal imager, the thermal imaging camera is about the size of a hand-held camcorder, and has become a very valuable tool in the fire service since its introduction. Instead of operating in the visible light spectrum like a camcorder does, the TIC senses long-wave infrared light which is in the electromagnetic spectrum, and invisible to the human eye. At ordinary temperatures, all objects emit heat, and the warmer they are, the more IR energy they emit. The TIC detects infrared energy through its front-mounted sensor, and the internal pyrometer reads the temperature difference of objects and then translates this into an image on the video display with hotter objects appearing white, and cooler objects appearing dark.


On the surface, this wall outlet looks innocuous enough. Place your cursor on the image to view it through the TIC, and click to enlarge.

The TIC is used for a wide-variety of applications in the fire service. Smoke is more transparent to infrared than to visible light, so the TIC is a very useful tool in a smoky environment. The TIC can help firefighters navigate faster through the smoke, and find victims and fire obscured by the sooty darkness.

Even in the absence of smoke, the TIC is still a very useful tool. The camera can be used to look for heat sources or fire extension in hidden areas such as inside walls and ceilings, finding "hot spots" during the overhaul phase of firefighting, checking for overheated electrical equipment such as wall outlets and switches, motors and light ballasts, and for searching for victims who may be lost, disoriented or disabled outside.


	The ISG Thermal Systems K-90 Thermal Imaging Camera.

The Simsbury Volunteer Fire Company uses the ISG Thermal Systems K-90, and is fortunate to have these imaging cameras on Engine 2, Engine 5, Engine 6, Engine 8, Engine 13, and Rescue 15. The K-90 features a Digital Direct Temperature measurement which provides an on-screen, numerical reading in one degree increments of an object's temperature.

A few options were added to the K-90's which were purchased including a video overlay. Through a separate front-mounted lens that operates in the visible light range just as a camcorder, an image is gathered with the available ambient light and then superimposed over the infrared image. Depending on the conditions, this can sometimes greatly enhance the image in the viewfinder.

Other options included on our K-90 models are a removable pistol grip, and a sizable sling which fits comfortably over a firefighter's turnout gear and self-contained breathing apparatus, both of which assist greatly in carrying and using the TIC. The K-90 also has the ability to transmit its image out to a receiver for remote viewing. This feature is valuable for training, documentation, and recon at different incidents.


The child in this bed is hard enough to distinguish even in good light conditions. Place your cursor on the image to view it through the TIC, and click to enlarge.

This wonderful technology does have few limitations however. Thermal imaging cameras can not see through glass or water, and this can lead to the operator misinterpreting what they are seeing. Operators must realize that the camera does not provide them with x-ray vision. A victim laying hidden behind a wall or couch will most likely go undetected by the camera. In a situation such as this, the heat source must be hot enough to force heat through the object to produce a noticeable temperature signature that the thermal imager can detect.

Firefighters must learn how to properly use TIC's and be mindful of their limitations during emergency incidents. The thermal imaging camera is not a substitute for sound search techniques in a smoke-filled environment. While thermal imaging cameras have proven to be a significant addition to the firefighter's tool box, firefighters must not forget to utilize all of the other skills and tools that they have in their arsenal.

Extrication refers to the removal of victims who are trapped by some type of man-made machinery or equipment such as an automobile or a wood chipper. The most common incident involving extrication that fire departments respond to is the motor vehicle accident with entrapped victims.

While the goal is to remove the victim so that they can be transported to a hospital for emergency care, rescuers must be very careful throughout this process as the victim may have suffered significant injuries. An ever-looming concern is injuries that may be undetectable at the incident, such as a cervical spine injury. Personnel always take great care to treat, package and handle any victims so as not to aggravate any injuries they may have suffered.


Removing the vehicle from around the victim before removing the victim from the vehicle.

To prevent contortion of the victim during their removal and possibly aggravating any injuries, rescuers first remove the vehicle from around the victim before removing the victim from the vehicle, as this provides the greatest degree of safety to the patient. The firefighter’s tool box contains many tools to assist with this process, and this section unfortunately covers only some of the more well-known items.


	Rescue units usually carry wooden cribbing in a variety of sizes.

One of the first priorities at a vehicle extrication is to stabilize the vehicle to maximize the amount of contact between the vehicle and the ground. This is done to prevent any movement of the vehicle which might further injure the victim, or possibly rescue personnel. Stabilization helps to support the vehicle at key points. As the vehicle is further compromised during the extrication process, movement might occur as the frame may begin to sag or contort.


One section of a vehicle cribbed. Wedges provide solid contact between the vehicle and the cribbing.

Wooden cribbing built up in a box formation is commonly used to stabilize a vehicle, especially when the vehicle is in the upright position. Wedges are generally used as the top tier to ensure a solid contact between the vehicle and the cribbing. When built correctly, the vehicle’s weight is transferred off of its suspension and onto the cribbing, taking any bounce out of the vehicle.

In reality, vehicles involved in accidents are not always found sitting on all their tires. Righting a vehicle with victims still inside is not an option as the potential to cause more harm than good is very high. Vehicles found in precarious positions must be stabilized in-place and extrication initiated as is.


	Airshore vehicle stabilization struts. Ratchet straps secure the struts to the vehicle and help prevent the bases from kicking out.

Another method of stabilizing a vehicle is the use of adjustable stabilization struts. Whether a vehicle is on its roof, side or somewhere in between, these supports secured with ratchet straps can be used to create horizontal or vertical stability.

High and low-pressure air bags are generally used for lifting vehicles and other heavy objects. Air bags can also be utilized to help stabilize a vehicle when other, more traditional methods of stabilization are inadequate or not feasible. While more stable than nothing at all, airbags still allow for some movement in the vehicle once they are in place.


A high-pressure air bag being used with cribbing to help stabilize an overturned vehicle. When an airbag is used for lifting, the object is always cribbed as it is raised.

Depending on the situation, several forms of stabilization may be employed simultaneously during an incident, and even in conjunction with one another. Wooden cribbing, stabilization struts, airbags and other forms of stabilization are also used for other scenarios such as trench rescue, building collapse, lifting and supporting heavy objects such as a water main, etc.

Once stabilization has been accomplished, extrication can begin. Commonly known as “Hurst Tools” or the “jaws of life,” hydraulic rescue tools are powered by either a portable or on-board power unit, and are capable of producing considerable pushing, pulling and cutting force, something which is frequently needed at extrication incidents. While many companies produce hydraulic rescue tools, Hurst Performance Inc. was the first to develop them in the early 1970’s for use in the race car industry.


	The Hurst ML-32 spreaders produce 16,000 lbs. of spreading force at tips. This tool can also be used to lift and pull.		Using the spreaders to pry a car door from the Nader Bolt.

The most common extrication procedure at an MVA is known as a “door pop.” It involves creating a “purchase point” with the axe and Halligan between the door and the panels, inserting the spreaders and separating the door from both its hinges and the Nader Bolt that secures it.

The spreaders also produce considerable pulling force. For instance, chains can be attached to the spreaders extended arms, and to the chassis and steering wheel of the vehicle. The spreaders are then retracted, pulling the steering wheel away from the victim.


The Hurst X-Tractor cutter's 38,000 lbs. of cutting force can sever most body and frame components of a vehicle.		Making a relief cut so the vehicle's roof can be folded back.

In some cases the roof needs to be removed either partially or totally. This is accomplished with the cutters which are used to separate the roof from its posts. The cutters are also used to create relief cuts such as in the roof so it may be folded back instead of completely removed, and in the bottom of the door frame so the dash board and steering wheel can be pushed back off of the victim. The cutters are capable of slicing through most frame and body components of a vehicle.


	A ram and a multi-tool manifold which allows multiple tools to be continuously connected to the same power unit.		A ram performing a "dash roll." The largest of the three Hurst rams generates 15,700 lbs. of pushing force.

To perform a dash displace-ment or “dash roll,” the front door is removed, the ram is placed in the door frame and then extended to push the dash and steering wheel away from the victim. Usually a ram is placed in the door frame on both sides of the vehicle and extended simultaneously during a dash displacement. When performing a dash displacement, it is critical that the vehicle be appropriately supported as this operation usually compromises the frame significantly. Rams can be used not only for pushing, but for pulling, shoring, stabilizing and supporting objects as well.


The air chisel does an excellent job of cutting through the body of a vehicle.

Besides the heavy hydraulic tools, there are several other tools available that are frequently used for extrication including small, hand-powered hydraulic cutters for severing the steering wheel ring and foot pedal columns. Common tools such as a hacksaw or an electric or battery-operated reciprocating saw with metal-cutting blades are commonly employed. Pneumatics such as cut-off saws and air chisels are excellent for cutting through sheet metal, and impact wrenches make quick work of nuts and bolts. Air tools can be powered by portable or on-board compressors, and even SCBA bottles.